 | | |
|---|
 | Benefits and costs of environmental pollution control |
| |
| 3.1. BACKGROUND | |
| FIGURE 1. FIGURE 3-1: INCREMENTAL DAMAGES AND COSTS OF CONTROLLING POLLUTION | |
| FIGURE 2. FIGURE 3-2: CONTROL OPTIONS FOR A SOURCE | |
| FIGURE 3. FIGURE 3-3: MARGINAL DAMAGES AND COSTS FOR TAX PER UNIT OF EMISSIONS APPROACH TO POLLUTION CONTROL | |
| TABLE 49. TABLE 11-4: SWEDISH ESTIMATES OF THE NET BENEFIT OF THE NOX CHARGE | |
| Cash payments |
| |
| 7.6. NEW JERSEY INFORMATION AWARDS PROGRAM | |
| 7.7.3. Car Buyback Schemes | |
|
| |
| 3.3.1. Pollution Taxes, Fees, and Charges | |
| 4.1. INTRODUCTION | |
| 4.5. PRODUCT CHARGES | |
| 4.5.1. Federal Product Charges | |
| 4.5.1.1. Superfund Taxes | |
| 4.5.1.2. Taxes on Fuel-Inefficient Automobiles | |
| 4.5.1.3. Ozone-depleting Chemicals | |
| 4.5.2. State Product Charges | |
| 4.5.2.1. Tire Charges | |
| 4.5.2.2. Fertilizer Charges | |
| 4.5.2.3. Rhode Island Hard-to-Dispose Material Tax | |
| 4.5.2.4. Florida ADF | |
| 4.5.2.5. North Carolina ADF | |
| 7.5.1. Advance Disposal Fee Systems | |
| 11.1. FEES, CHARGES, AND TAXES | |
| 11.1.1. Waste | |
| 11.1.2. Air | |
| 11.1.2.1. Sweden's Nitrogen Oxide Charge | |
| 11.1.2.2. Charges in Less Industrialized Countries | |
| 11.1.3. Water | |
| 11.1.3.1. User fees | |
| 11.1.3.2. Effluent Charges | |
| 11.1.3.3. Effluent Charges in Germany | |
| 11.1.3.4. Effluent Charges in the Netherlands | |
| 11.1.3.5. Effluent Charges in France | |
| 11.1.3.6. Effluent Charges in Less Industrialized Countries | |
| 11.1.4. Noise | |
| 11.1.5. Charges on Environmentally Damaging Products and Activities | |
| 11.1.5.1. Charges on Agricultural Inputs | |
| 11.1.5.2. Energy/carbon Taxes | |
| 11.1.5.3. Preferential Taxation of Environmentally Friendly
Products | |
| 11.1.5.4. Road User Fees | |
| 11.1.5.5. Singapore Road and Vehicle Taxation | |
| FIGURE 5. FIGURE 4-1: 1994 WATER CHARGE STRUCTURES | |
| FIGURE 6. FIGURE 4-2: MONTHLY WATER AND WASTEWATER CHARGES | |
| FIGURE 19. FIGURE 11-1: ANNUAL CHARGE PAYMENTS FOR HYPOTHETICAL INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGE | |
| FIGURE 20. FIGURE 11-2: POINT SOURCE EFFLUENT CHARGES IN GERMANY | |
| FIGURE 21. FIGURE 11-3: EFFLUENT CHARGES IN THE NETHERLANDS | |
| FIGURE 22. FIGURE 11-4: EFFLUENT CHARGE REVENUES IN THE NETHERLANDS | |
| FIGURE 23. FIGURE 11-5: FERTILIZER CHARGES AND USE IN SWEDEN | |
| FIGURE 24. FIGURE 11-6: SALES OF DIFFERENT CLASSES OF DIESEL FUEL IN SWEDEN | |
| FIGURE 26. FIGURE 11-8: PRIVATE CARS ENTERING SINGAPORE CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT | |
| FIGURE 27. FIGURE 11-9: MODES OF TRANSPORTATION IN SINGAPORE | |
| TABLE 5. TABLE 3-5: USES OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS | |
| TABLE 6. TABLE 4-1: OVERVIEW OF FEES, CHARGES, AND TAXES IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY | |
| TABLE 15. TABLE 4-10: PRODUCT CHARGES ON TIRES | |
| TABLE 48. TABLE 11-3: CHARGES ON LANDFILL OPERATORS IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC | |
| TABLE 49. TABLE 11-4: SWEDISH ESTIMATES OF THE NET BENEFIT OF THE NOX CHARGE | |
| TABLE 50. TABLE 11-5: AIR POLLUTION CHARGES IN EASTERN EUROPE | |
| TABLE 52. TABLE 11-7: DISCHARGE SCENARIOS FOR FIGURE 11-1 | |
| TABLE 53. TABLE 11-8: WATER EFFLUENT CHARGES IN EASTERN EUROPE | |
| TABLE 54. TABLE 11-9: IMPACT OF SEWAGE CHARGES ON POLLUTION IN SAO PAULO STATE, BRAZIL | |
| TABLE 55. TABLE 11-10: ADVANCE DISPOSAL FEES IN SOUTH KOREA | |
| TABLE 56. TABLE 11-11: FERTILIZER CHARGES IN SWEDEN | |
| Command and control |
| |
| 1.2. DEFINITIONS | |
| 3.2. COMMAND AND CONTROL | |
| 11.1.5.6. Other Measures to Curb Congestion | |
| FIGURE 4. FIGURE 3-4: COSTS FOR EMISSIONS CONTROL FOR FIRMS UNDER EMISSIONS TAX AND COMMAND AND CONTROL APPROACHES | |
|
| |
| 3.3.4. Deposit-Refund Systems | |
| 5.1. INTRODUCTION | |
| 5.2. BEVERAGE CONTAINERS | |
| 5.2.1. Maine Bottle Bill | |
| 5.2.2. California Beverage Container Recycling Program | |
| 5.3. LEAD-ACID BATTERIES | |
| 5.4. MAINE PESTICIDE CONTAINER DEPOSIT SYSTEM | |
| 5.5. OTHER PRODUCTS | |
| 5.6. VOLUNTARY DEPOSIT SCHEMES | |
| 5.7. PERFORMANCE BONDS | |
| 11.2. DEPOSIT-REFUND MECHANISMS | |
| FIGURE 9. FIGURE 5-1: U.S. MARKET SHARE OF REFILLABLE BOTTLES | |
| FIGURE 10. FIGURE 5-2: ESTIMATED DISTRIBUTOR COSTS OF MAINE DEPOSIT SCHEMES | |
| FIGURE 11. FIGURE 5-3: BATTERY LEAD RECYCLING AND LEAD SCRAP PRICES IN THE U.S. | |
| FIGURE 28. FIGURE 11-10: ALUMINUM CAN RECYCLING RATES | |
| FIGURE 29. FIGURE 11-11: CARS SOLD AND SCRAPPED IN SWEDEN | |
| FIGURE 30. FIGURE 11-12: PET BOTTLE RECYCLING RATE IN TAIWAN | |
| TABLE 5. TABLE 3-5: USES OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS | |
| TABLE 16. TABLE 5-1: STATE BEVERAGE CONTAINER DEPOSIT SYSTEMS | |
| TABLE 17. TABLE 5-2: ESTIMATED COLLECTION AMOUNTS AND COSTS OF CURBSIDE AND DEPOSIT PROGRAMS IN MAINE COMMUNITY OF 25,000 INHABITANT S | |
| TABLE 18. TABLE 5-3: MANDATORY LEAD-ACID BATTERY DEPOSIT SYSTEMS | |
| TABLE 63. TABLE 11-18: BEVERAGE CONTAINER DEPOSITS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES | |
| TABLE 64. TABLE 11-19: DEPOSITS IN SOUTH KOREA | |
| Economic incentives in general |
| |
| EXECUTIVE SUMMARY | |
| 1. INTRODUCTION | |
| 1.1. PURPOSE OF REPORT | |
| 1.2. DEFINITIONS | |
| 1.3. ORGANIZATION OF REPORT | |
| 1.4. SCOPE OF REPORT | |
| 2. GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON ECONOMIC INCENTIVES | |
| 2.1.2. Economic Report of the President | |
| 2.1.3. Council on Sustainable Development | |
| 2.1.4. Vice-Presidential National Performance Review | |
| 2.1.5. Executive Order 12866 and Related OMB Guidance | |
| 2.2.1. Economic Incentives: Options for Environmental Protection | |
| 2.2.2. 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments | |
| 2.2.3. The Project 88 Report | |
| 2.2.4. Executive Order 12291 and EPA Guidelines for Performing Regulatory Impact Analysis | |
| 2.3. CONCLUSIONS | |
| 3.1. BACKGROUND | |
| 3.3. INCENTIVE-BASED MECHANISMS | |
| 3.4. RELATIVE ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY | |
| 3.5. ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE | |
| 3.6. IMPACTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY | |
| 3.7. FINDING THE RIGHT INSTRUMENT FOR THE PROBLEM | |
| 11. FOREIGN EXPERIENCES WITH INCENTIVE SYSTEMS | |
| 11.9. TREND OF INCREASING USE OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES | |
| 11.10. CONCLUSIONS | |
| 12. CONCLUSIONS | |
| APPENDIX 1. BIBLIOGRAPHY | |
| TABLE 46. TABLE 11-1: NOTEWORTHY INCENTIVE MECHANISMS OUTSIDE THE UNITED STATES | |
| Education |
| |
| 7.5.1. Advance Disposal Fee Systems | |
| TABLE 55. TABLE 11-10: ADVANCE DISPOSAL FEES IN SOUTH KOREA | |
|
| |
| 6.1.11. Heavy Duty Truck Engine Emissions | |
| 6.1.12.2. Petroleum Industry NESHAPS | |
| 6.1.12.3. Hazardous Organic Chemical NESHAP | |
| 6.1.13. Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards (CAFE) | |
| Emission trading |
| |
| 6. TRADING SYSTEMS | |
| 6.1.1.1. Offset Program | |
| 6.1.1.2. Bubble Program | |
| 6.1.1.3. Banking | |
| 6.1.1.4. Netting | |
| 6.1.1.5. Evaluation of Emissions Trading Program | |
| 6.1.2. RECLAIM | |
| 6.1.3.1. Illinois | |
| 6.1.3.2. Delaware | |
| 6.1.3.3. Massachusetts | |
| 6.1.3.4. Michigan | |
| 6.1.3.5. New Jersey | |
| 6.1.3.6. Texas | |
| 6.1.3.7. Wisconsin | |
| 6.1.4. NESCAUM/MARAMA Demonstration Project | |
| 6.1.5. OTC/OTAG Regional NOx Reduction Program | |
| 6.1.6. Open Market Trading | |
| 6.1.7. Acid Rain Allowance Trading | |
| 6.1.14. Wood Stove and Fireplace Permit Trading | |
| 6.1.15. Grass Burning Permit Trading | |
| 6.2.3.4. Other Point-Nonpoint Trading Proposals | |
| 11.3. MARKETABLE PERMIT SYSTEMS | |
| 11.3.1. Air Pollution | |
| 11.3.2. Water Pollution | |
| FIGURE 12. FIGURE 6-1: PHASE I SO2 EMISSION | |
| TABLE 19. TABLE 6-1: EMISSION TRADING ACTIVITY IN THE LOS ANGELES AREA | |
| TABLE 20. TABLE 6-2: RECLAIM TRADING CREDIT PRICES | |
| TABLE 21. TABLE 6-3: ESTIMATED AND AVERAGE REALIZED ALLOWANCE PRICES | |
| TABLE 23. TABLE 6-5: PROJECTED COST SAVINGS FROM EFFLUENT BUBBLE (IN THOUSANDS OF 1978 DOLLARS) | |
| Fees |
| |
| 3.3.1. Pollution Taxes, Fees, and Charges | |
| 4.1. INTRODUCTION | |
| 4.2.1. Indirect Discharge and User Fees | |
| 4.2.2. Direct Discharge Fees | |
| 4.2.3. Examples of State Effluent Fees: Louisiana, California, and Wisconsin | |
| 4.2.4. Stormwater Runoff Fees | |
| 4.3. AIR FEES | |
| 4.3.1. Permit Fees | |
| 4.3.1.1. Air Emission Permit Fees in Maine | |
| 4.3.1.2. Air Emission Permit Fees in the South Coast Air Quality Management District | |
| 4.3.1.3. California "Hot Spots" Fees | |
| 4.3.2. Ozone Non-Attainment Area Fees | |
| 4.4. WASTE FEES | |
| 4.4.1. Variable Pricing Program | |
| 4.6. ROAD USER FEES | |
| 4.7. WETLAND COMPENSATION FEES | |
| 4.8. GRAZING FEES | |
| 11.1. FEES, CHARGES, AND TAXES | |
| 11.1.1. Waste | |
| 11.1.2. Air | |
| 11.1.2.1. Sweden's Nitrogen Oxide Charge | |
| 11.1.2.2. Charges in Less Industrialized Countries | |
| 11.1.3. Water | |
| 11.1.3.1. User fees | |
| 11.1.3.2. Effluent Charges | |
| 11.1.3.3. Effluent Charges in Germany | |
| 11.1.3.4. Effluent Charges in the Netherlands | |
| 11.1.3.5. Effluent Charges in France | |
| 11.1.3.6. Effluent Charges in Less Industrialized Countries | |
| 11.1.4. Noise | |
| 11.1.5. Charges on Environmentally Damaging Products and Activities | |
| 11.1.5.1. Charges on Agricultural Inputs | |
| 11.1.5.2. Energy/carbon Taxes | |
| 11.1.5.4. Road User Fees | |
| 11.1.5.5. Singapore Road and Vehicle Taxation | |
| FIGURE 8. FIGURE 4-4: GRAZING FEES UNDER THE PUBLIC RANGELANDS IMPROVEMENT ACT | |
| FIGURE 26. FIGURE 11-8: PRIVATE CARS ENTERING SINGAPORE CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT | |
| FIGURE 27. FIGURE 11-9: MODES OF TRANSPORTATION IN SINGAPORE | |
| TABLE 5. TABLE 3-5: USES OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS | |
| TABLE 6. TABLE 4-1: OVERVIEW OF FEES, CHARGES, AND TAXES IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY | |
| TABLE 7. TABLE 4-2: STATE EFFLUENT FEES AS OF DECEMBER 1993 | |
| TABLE 8. TABLE 4-3: AIR EMISSIONS PERMIT FEES IN MAINE
| |
| TABLE 9. TABLE 4-4: EMISSION FEES IN SOUTH COAST AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT DISTRICT | |
| TABLE 10. TABLE 4-5: AIR TOXICS AND OZONE-DEPLETING CHEMICALS FEES IN SCAQMD
($ PER POUND) | |
| TABLE 11. TABLE 4-6: VARIABLE RATE STRUCTURES IN SELECTED COMMUNITIES | |
| TABLE 12. TABLE 4-7: CHANGES IN WASTE DISPOSAL IN RESPONSE TO VARIABLE RATE PRICING PROGRAMS | |
|
| |
| 3.3.2. Subsidies | |
| 7.1. INTRODUCTION | |
| 7.3.1. EPA Pilot Project Grants | |
| 7.4. FARMING AND LAND PRESERVATION | |
| 7.5.3. Recycling Loans and Grants | |
| 7.9. MUNICIPAL SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT CONSTRUCTION | |
| 11.4. SUBSIDIES | |
| 11.4.1. Subsidies for Environmentally Friendly Agriculture and Land Management | |
| 11.4.3. Subsidies for Resource Conservation | |
| FIGURE 14. FIGURE 7-2: STATE REVOLVING FUND INVESTMENT FY 1988-95 | |
| FIGURE 15. FIGURE 7-3: U.S. POPULATION SERVED BY MODERN SEWAGE TREATMENT FACILITIES | |
| TABLE 24. TABLE 7-1: THE USE OF SUBSIDIES IN U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION | |
| Information programs |
| |
| 3.3.5. Information Programs | |
| 9.1. INTRODUCTION | |
| 9.8. ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE AWARDS | |
| Labeling |
| |
| 9.7. LABELING SCHEMES | |
| 9.7.1. Federal Trade Commission Guidelines for Environmental Marketing Claims | |
| 9.7.2. Green Seal and Other Seals of Approval | |
| 9.7.3. Single-Attribute Seals of Approval | |
| 9.7.4. Report Cards and Information Disclosure | |
| 9.7.5. Energy-Efficiency Labeling | |
| 9.7.6. Hazard Labels | |
| TABLE 43. TABLE 9-3: CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL LABELING SCHEMES | |
| TABLE 44. TABLE 10-1: EPA VOLUNTARY PROGRAMS | |
| Liability |
| |
| 3.3.6. Liability for Health and Environmental Harm | |
| 8. LIABILITY APPROACHES | |
| 8.1. LIABILITY FOR CLEANUP COSTS | |
| 8.2. LIABILITY FOR DAMAGE TO NATURAL RESOURCES | |
| 8.3. CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LIABILITY | |
| 8.3.1. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) | |
| 8.3.2. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) | |
| 8.3.3. Clean Water Act (CWA) | |
| 8.3.4. Clean Air Act (CAA) | |
| 8.4. TORT LIABILITY | |
| TABLE 5. TABLE 3-5: USES OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS | |
| TABLE 40. TABLE 8-1: LARGEST FEDERAL NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE SETTLEMENTS | |
|
| |
| 3.3.2. Subsidies | |
| 7.1. INTRODUCTION | |
| 7.2.4. Loans and Tax-exempt Bonds | |
| 7.3.2. Tax Incentives and Loans | |
| 7.4. FARMING AND LAND PRESERVATION | |
| 7.4.12.1. State Initiatives | |
| 7.5.3. Recycling Loans and Grants | |
| 7.9. MUNICIPAL SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT CONSTRUCTION | |
| 11.4. SUBSIDIES | |
| 11.4.1. Subsidies for Environmentally Friendly Agriculture and Land Management | |
| FIGURE 14. FIGURE 7-2: STATE REVOLVING FUND INVESTMENT FY 1988-95 | |
| FIGURE 15. FIGURE 7-3: U.S. POPULATION SERVED BY MODERN SEWAGE TREATMENT FACILITIES | |
| TABLE 24. TABLE 7-1: THE USE OF SUBSIDIES IN U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION | |
|
| |
| 4.7. WETLAND COMPENSATION FEES | |
| 6.3.1. Wetland Mitigation Banking | |
| Procurement mandate |
| |
| 7.1. INTRODUCTION | |
| 7.5.5. Preferential Procurement of Recycled Products | |
| 7.5.6. Recycled Content Policies | |
| 7.7.1. Federal Subsidies | |
| 7.7.2. State Subsidies | |
| FIGURE 13. FIGURE 7-1: WISCONSIN NEWSPAPER RECYCLING AND RECYCLED CONTENT REQUIREMENTS | |
| TABLE 24. TABLE 7-1: THE USE OF SUBSIDIES IN U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION | |
| Product charges |
| |
| 4.5. PRODUCT CHARGES | |
| 4.5.1. Federal Product Charges | |
| 4.5.1.1. Superfund Taxes | |
| 4.5.1.2. Taxes on Fuel-Inefficient Automobiles | |
| 4.5.1.3. Ozone-depleting Chemicals | |
| 4.5.2. State Product Charges | |
| 4.5.2.1. Tire Charges | |
| 4.5.2.2. Fertilizer Charges | |
| 4.5.2.3. Rhode Island Hard-to-Dispose Material Tax | |
| 4.5.2.4. Florida ADF | |
| 4.5.2.5. North Carolina ADF | |
| 7.5.1. Advance Disposal Fee Systems | |
| 11.1.5. Charges on Environmentally Damaging Products and Activities | |
| 11.1.5.1. Charges on Agricultural Inputs | |
| 11.1.5.3. Preferential Taxation of Environmentally Friendly
Products | |
| FIGURE 23. FIGURE 11-5: FERTILIZER CHARGES AND USE IN SWEDEN | |
| FIGURE 24. FIGURE 11-6: SALES OF DIFFERENT CLASSES OF DIESEL FUEL IN SWEDEN | |
| TABLE 15. TABLE 4-10: PRODUCT CHARGES ON TIRES | |
| TABLE 55. TABLE 11-10: ADVANCE DISPOSAL FEES IN SOUTH KOREA | |
| Reporting requirements |
| |
| 3.3.5. Information Programs | |
| 9.1. INTRODUCTION | |
| 9.2. EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW ACT (EPCRA) | |
| 9.2.1. Trends in Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) Data | |
| 9.2.2. Incentive Effect of the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) | |
| 9.3. STATE EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW ACT (EPCRA) PROGRAMS | |
| 9.3.1. Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Act | |
| 9.3.2. New Jersey Reporting Requirements | |
| 9.4. PROPOSITION 65 | |
| 9.5. HOT SPOTS ACT | |
| 9.6. ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACTS | |
| 9.9. SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION (SEC) DISCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS | |
| 9.10. RADON AND LEAD PAINT DISCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS | |
| 11.5. PRODUCT LABELING | |
| 11.6. INFORMATION DISCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS | |
| FIGURE 16. FIGURE 9-1: MASSACHUSETTS TOXICS USE AND BYPRODUCTS | |
| TABLE 41. TABLE 9-1: TOXICS RELEASE INVENTORY (TRI) RELEASES BY INDUSTRY | |
| TABLE 42. TABLE 9-2: TOXICS RELEASE INVENTORY (TRI) WASTE TRANSFERS | |
| TABLE 65. TABLE 11-20: ENVIRONMENTAL LABELS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES | |
| TABLE 66. TABLE 11-21: KOREAN ECO-MARK PRODUCT CRITERIA | |
|
| |
| 3.3.2. Subsidies | |
| 6.3.2.3. Maryland Purchase of Development Right (PDR) Program | |
| 7.1. INTRODUCTION | |
| 7.2. POLLUTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL | |
| 7.2.1. Tax Benefits | |
| 7.2.2. Louisiana Environmental Scorecard | |
| 7.2.3. Supplemental Environmental Projects | |
| 7.2.4. Loans and Tax-exempt Bonds | |
| 7.3. BROWNFIELDS PROGRAMS | |
| 7.3.1. EPA Pilot Project Grants | |
| 7.3.2. Tax Incentives and Loans | |
| 7.4. FARMING AND LAND PRESERVATION | |
| 7.4.1. Conservation Reserve Program | |
| 7.4.2. Wetlands Reserve Program | |
| 7.4.3. Agricultural Conservation Program | |
| 7.4.5. Highly Erodible Land Conservation Compliance and "Sodbuster" | |
| 7.4.6. Swampbuster Program | |
| 7.4.7. Acreage Reduction Program | |
| 7.4.8. Subsidy Programs Created under 1996 Farm Bill | |
| 7.4.8.1. Environmental Quality Incentive Program | |
| 7.4.8.2. Farmland Protection Program | |
| 7.4.8.3. Conservation Farm Option | |
| 7.4.8.4. Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program | |
| 7.4.9. State Initiatives | |
| 7.4.10. Purchase of Development Rights | |
| 7.4.12.1. State Initiatives | |
| 7.4.12.2. Purchasable Development Rights | |
| 7.5. CONSUMER PRODUCT WASTE MANAGEMENT | |
| 7.5.1. Advance Disposal Fee Systems | |
| 7.5.2. Deposit Handling Fees | |
| 7.5.3. Recycling Loans and Grants | |
| 7.5.4. Tax Incentives | |
| 7.7. ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND LOW-EMITTING VEHICLES | |
| 7.7.1. Federal Subsidies | |
| 7.8. RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CONSERVATION | |
| 7.9. MUNICIPAL SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT CONSTRUCTION | |
| 7.10. ENVIRONMENTALLY HARMFUL SUBSIDIES | |
| 7.10.1. Subsidies for Timber, Minerals, and Water Extraction | |
| 7.10.2. Agriculture | |
| 7.10.3. Mortgage Interest Tax Deduction | |
| 11.4. SUBSIDIES | |
| 11.4.1. Subsidies for Environmentally Friendly Agriculture and Land Management | |
| 11.4.2. Subsidies to Reduce Vehicle Emissions | |
| 11.4.3. Subsidies for Resource Conservation | |
| 11.4.4. Environmentally Harmful Subsidies | |
| 11.8. DEBT-FOR-NATURE SWAPS AND JOINT IMPLEMENTATION | |
| FIGURE 14. FIGURE 7-2: STATE REVOLVING FUND INVESTMENT FY 1988-95 | |
| FIGURE 15. FIGURE 7-3: U.S. POPULATION SERVED BY MODERN SEWAGE TREATMENT FACILITIES | |
| FIGURE 31. FIGURE 11-13: ELECTRIC POWER PRICES, 1988 | |
| TABLE 5. TABLE 3-5: USES OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS | |
| TABLE 24. TABLE 7-1: THE USE OF SUBSIDIES IN U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION | |
| TABLE 25. TABLE 7-2: POINTS AWARDED AND SUBTRACTED UNDER LOUISIANA SCORECARD SYSTEM | |
| TABLE 26. TABLE 7-3: U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE CONSERVATION SUBSIDY PROGRAMS | |
| TABLE 27. TABLE 7-4: CONSERVATION RESERVE PROGRAM ACREAGE AND RENTAL PAYMENTS FOR FIRST 12 ENROLLMENTS | |
| TABLE 28. TABLE 7-5: PROJECTED SOCIAL BENEFITS AND COSTS OF CONSRVATION RESERVE PROGRAM (IN BILLIONS OF DOLLARS) | |
| TABLE 29. TABLE 7-6: WETLAND RESERVE PROGRAM (WRP) FIRST ENROLLMENT (1992) | |
| TABLE 30. TABLE 7-7: BENEFITS AND COSTS OF CONSERVATION COMPLIANCE | |
| TABLE 31. TABLE 7-8: IMPACTS OF CONSERVATION PROGRAMS ON EROSION AND CHEMICAL USE, FISCAL YEARS 1988-93 | |
| TABLE 32. TABLE 7-9: STATUS OF PURCHASE OF DEVELOPMENT RIGHTS PROGRAMS AS OF APRIL 1996 | |
| TABLE 33. TABLE 7-10: SUBSIDIES FOR USED TIRE MANAGEMENT | |
| TABLE 34. TABLE 7-11: WISCONSIN RECYCLING FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS | |
| TABLE 35. TABLE 7-12: STATE LOAN FUNDS FOR RECYCLING BUSINESSES | |
| TABLE 36. TABLE 7-13: ALTERNATIVE FUEL AND ALTERNATIVE FUEL VEHICLE SUBSIDIES
| |
| TABLE 37. TABLE 7-14: ALTERNATIVE FUEL VEHICLE PROCUREMENT REQUIREMENTS | |
| TABLE 38. TABLE 7-15: ANNUAL ALTERNATIVE FUEL AND ALTERNATIVE FUEL VEHICLE SUBSIDIES IN THE OZONE TRANSPORT REGION | |
| TABLE 39. TABLE 7-16: U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION WATER SUBSIDIES | |
| TABLE 55. TABLE 11-10: ADVANCE DISPOSAL FEES IN SOUTH KOREA | |
|
| |
| 3.3.2. Subsidies | |
| 7.2.1. Tax Benefits | |
| 7.2.2. Louisiana Environmental Scorecard | |
| 7.2.4. Loans and Tax-exempt Bonds | |
| 7.3.2. Tax Incentives and Loans | |
| 7.4. FARMING AND LAND PRESERVATION | |
| 7.4.12.1. State Initiatives | |
| 7.5.4. Tax Incentives | |
| 7.7.1. Federal Subsidies | |
| 7.8. RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CONSERVATION | |
| 7.10.1. Subsidies for Timber, Minerals, and Water Extraction | |
| 7.10.3. Mortgage Interest Tax Deduction | |
| 11.4. SUBSIDIES | |
| 11.4.1. Subsidies for Environmentally Friendly Agriculture and Land Management | |
| 11.4.3. Subsidies for Resource Conservation | |
| 11.4.4. Environmentally Harmful Subsidies | |
| FIGURE 31. FIGURE 11-13: ELECTRIC POWER PRICES, 1988 | |
| TABLE 25. TABLE 7-2: POINTS AWARDED AND SUBTRACTED UNDER LOUISIANA SCORECARD SYSTEM | |
| Taxes |
| |
| 3.3.1. Pollution Taxes, Fees, and Charges | |
| 3.3.3. Trading Systems | |
| 4.1. INTRODUCTION | |
| 4.4.2. Landfill Taxes | |
| 4.4.3. Hazardous Waste Taxes | |
| 4.5.1.1. Superfund Taxes | |
| 4.5.2.6. Texas Clean Fuel Incentive Surcharge | |
| 4.9. MINNESOTA CONTAMINATION TAX | |
| 11.1. FEES, CHARGES, AND TAXES | |
| 11.1.1. Waste | |
| 11.1.2. Air | |
| 11.1.2.1. Sweden's Nitrogen Oxide Charge | |
| 11.1.2.2. Charges in Less Industrialized Countries | |
| 11.1.3. Water | |
| 11.1.3.1. User fees | |
| 11.1.3.2. Effluent Charges | |
| 11.1.3.3. Effluent Charges in Germany | |
| 11.1.3.4. Effluent Charges in the Netherlands | |
| 11.1.3.5. Effluent Charges in France | |
| 11.1.3.6. Effluent Charges in Less Industrialized Countries | |
| 11.1.4. Noise | |
| 11.1.5. Charges on Environmentally Damaging Products and Activities | |
| 11.1.5.1. Charges on Agricultural Inputs | |
| 11.1.5.2. Energy/carbon Taxes | |
| 11.1.5.4. Road User Fees | |
| 11.1.5.5. Singapore Road and Vehicle Taxation | |
| FIGURE 3. FIGURE 3-3: MARGINAL DAMAGES AND COSTS FOR TAX PER UNIT OF EMISSIONS APPROACH TO POLLUTION CONTROL | |
| FIGURE 4. FIGURE 3-4: COSTS FOR EMISSIONS CONTROL FOR FIRMS UNDER EMISSIONS TAX AND COMMAND AND CONTROL APPROACHES | |
| FIGURE 25. FIGURE 11-7: SINGAPORE ANNUAL ROAD TAX | |
| FIGURE 26. FIGURE 11-8: PRIVATE CARS ENTERING SINGAPORE CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT | |
| FIGURE 27. FIGURE 11-9: MODES OF TRANSPORTATION IN SINGAPORE | |
| TABLE 5. TABLE 3-5: USES OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS | |
| TABLE 6. TABLE 4-1: OVERVIEW OF FEES, CHARGES, AND TAXES IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY | |
| TABLE 13. TABLE 4-8: HAZARDOUS WASTE LAND DISPOSAL FEES IN CALIFORNIA, FY 1996 | |
| TABLE 14. TABLE 4-9: HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATION FEES IN CALIFORNIA, CY 1996 | |
| TABLE 47. TABLE 11-2: WASTE DISPOSAL BAG PRICES IN SEOUL METROPOLITAN AREA | |
| TABLE 57. TABLE 11-12: ENERGY/CARBON TAXES | |
| TABLE 58. TABLE 11-13: 1994 ENERGY TAXES IN DENMARK | |
| TABLE 59. TABLE 11-14: CARBON/ENERGY TAXES IN THE NETHERLANDS | |
| TABLE 60. TABLE 11-15: CARBON/ENERGY TAXES APPLIED TO FUELS IN THE NETHERLANDS | |
| TABLE 61. TABLE 11-16: DIFFERENTIAL TAXATION OF LEADED GASOLINE | |
| TABLE 62. TABLE 11-17: 1992 CLASSIFICATION OF DIESEL FUELS AND TAX REBATES IN SWEDEN | |
| TABLE 67. TABLE 11-22: SHARE OF ENVIRONMENTAL TAXES IN TOTAL TAX REVENUES IN OECD COUNTRIES | |
| Trading systems |
| |
| 2.1.1. Reinventing Environmental Regulation | |
| 2.1.2. Economic Report of the President | |
| 3.3.3. Trading Systems | |
| 6.1.8. Chlorofluorocarbon Production Allowance Trading | |
| 6.1.9. Lead Credit Trading | |
| 6.1.10. Gasoline Constituents | |
| 6.1.12.1. Early Reduction Program | |
| 6.2.1. Effluent Bubble | |
| 6.2.2. Effluent Trading (point-point) | |
| 6.2.3. Effluent Trading (Point-nonpoint) | |
| 6.2.3.1. Dillon Reservoir | |
| 6.2.3.2. Cherry Creek | |
| 6.2.3.3. Tar-Pamlico Basin | |
| 6.3.1. Wetland Mitigation Banking | |
| 6.3.2. Transferable Development Rights | |
| 6.3.2.1. Montgomery County, Maryland | |
| 6.3.2.2. Talbot County, Maryland | |
| 6.3.2.4. The Pinelands, New Jersey | |
| 6.3.2.5. Palm Beach County, Florida | |
| 6.4.1. Joint Implementation | |
| 6.4.2. Proposed Cross-Border Trading Program: El Paso Region | |
| 11.3.3. Water Use Rights | |
| 11.3.4. Water-energy Trading | |
| 11.8. DEBT-FOR-NATURE SWAPS AND JOINT IMPLEMENTATION | |
| TABLE 5. TABLE 3-5: USES OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS | |
| TABLE 22. TABLE 6-4: EXAMPLE OF EMISSION BENEFITS OF EARLY REDUCTION PROGRAM | |
|
| |
| 5.6. VOLUNTARY DEPOSIT SCHEMES | |
| 10. VOLUNTARY PROGRAMS | |
| 10.1. GREEN LIGHTS AND ENERGY STAR | |
| 10.2. WASTEWI$E | |
| 10.3. 33/50 PROGRAM | |
| 10.4. PROJECT XL | |
| 10.5. ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP PROGRAM (ELP) | |
| 10.6. WAVE | |
| 10.7. CLIMATE WISE | |
| 10.8. METHANE RECOVERY PROGRAMS | |
| 10.9. STATE PROGRAMS | |
| 10.9.1. Massachusetts Recycled Newsprint Program | |
| 10.9.2. Texas Clean Industries 2000 | |
| 10.9.3. Adopt-a-Highway | |
| 11.7. VOLUNTARY PROGRAMS | |
| FIGURE 17. FIGURE 10-1: ENERGY SAVINGS IN SHOWCASE BUILDING | |
| FIGURE 18. FIGURE 10-2: RELEASES AND TRANSFERS OF 33/50 PROGRAM CHEMICALS | |
| TABLE 5. TABLE 3-5: USES OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS | |
| TABLE 45. TABLE 10-2: WAVE INVESTMENTS AND SAVINGS | |